RMS Titanic
Posted by Tanner Mills on Feb 26, 2012
The RMS Titanic was a ship ‘s passengers British Olympic Class , famous for the collision with an iceberg on the night between 14 and 15 April 1912 , and the consequent dramatic sinking occurred in the early hours of the next day.
According to a trio of ocean liners , the Titanic , with its two sister ships Olympic and Britannic , were designed to provide a weekly line with America and ensure the rule of the ocean routes to the White Star Line [1] .
Built at the shipyard Harland and Wolff of Belfast , the Titanic represented the epitome of naval technology and was the largest and most luxurious ocean liner in the world. During her maiden voyage (from Southampton to New York via Cherbourg and Queenstown ), collided with an iceberg at 23:40 (hours of the ship) to Sunday, 14 April 1912 . The impact caused the opening of some flaws along the right side of the liner, which sank two hours and 40 minutes later (at 2:20 on April 15) cracking it in two [2] .
In tragedy, the greatest tragedy of all time [3] in the history of Civil Navy, died 1523 [4] [5] [6] of 2223 passengers on board including 800 crew [4] . The event attracted a huge impression on public opinion and led to the convening of the First Conference on the Safety of Life at Sea.
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The Titanic under construction.
The Titanic , as the sister ships Olympic and Britannic , were designed to compete with the Lusitania and the Mauretania (transatlantic rival company Cunard Line ), which at that time, most luxurious ships, fast and impressive commitment on transatlantic routes. Since he also had the postal service, she was given the prefix RMS ( Royal Mail Steamer ) as well as SS ( Steam ship , steamship). The ship was designed by William Pirrie, chairman of Harland and Wolff , and by the naval architect Thomas Andrews , who was the chief designer.
The construction of the RMS Titanic , funded by the shipowner American John Pierpont Morgan through his company International Mercantile Marine Co. , began on 31 March 1909 , the hull was launched on 31 May 1911 and the superstructure were completed on 31 March the following year .
When delivered, the transatlantic cost about $ 7 million (400 million dollars today), the one-way ticket to New York , first class, cost 3,100 U.S. dollars at the time (about $ 70,000 today), the third class only 32 dollars (about $ 700 today); send a private telegram of 10 words from the telegraph service board cost $ 2 (the equivalent of $ 50 today). [7] .
The Titanic was 269 meters long [7] and 28 wide, had a tonnage of 46,328 tons and the height of the bridge on the water line was 18 meters (53 feet total height [4] ). Although he had the same length of ‘ Olympic , had a gross tonnage increased because of greater interior space, mainly due to the closure of part of the promenade deck “A” with windows partially open.
View of the propellers.
The propulsion was steam [8] (it was a steamboat , unlike the later boats – defined as motor vessels – equipped with diesel engines ), with four opposed cylinders invertible triple expansion (reciprocating machines) plus a turbine Parson at low pressure. The reciprocating machines of Titanic and of the ‘ Olympic remain the largest ever built [9] , occupying four floors in height by developing 51,000 horse power [4] and moving the two side propellers. The turbine was moving only the central helix.
The 29 boilers, having a diameter of 5 meters each, were able to burn approximately 728 tons of coal per day. The maximum speed was 23 knots (43 km / h), of less than three nodes with respect to the speed of Mauretania .
Only three of the four chimneys were functioning, the fourth had only the function of intake air and was added to make the most imposing figure of the ship, were painted in yellow and black, as tradition demanded the White Star, while the red was the color of Cunard.
The ship had a useful capacity of 3547 people including passengers and crew. The display board included, inter alia, an indoor pool on the deck D model of the ‘ Olympic (for the first time on a ship), a gym, turkish bath and a field of squash . The first class rooms were decorated with great magnificence. There were 34 private dwellings, each with a living room, reading room and smoking room, every room was decorated in different style. Three lifts were available for the first class and, as a novelty, an elevator for the second class. The third class was worth the second on other ships, and was decorated with pine, painted white, glazed walls and chairs in teak. In third-class restaurant was located a piano.
The Titanic was a jewel of technology and was deemed “practically unsinkable” [10] [11] . His radio station was considered (with the ‘ Olympic ) the most modern and powerful engine ever installed on a ship [12] : the flow rate reached a distance of 2,000 miles and the antennas were placed on two masts at a height of 60 meters and far between 180 meters (in case of emergency, the electric generator could be replaced by a diesel generator). The bridge was equipped with lances from the brand new cranes “Welin,” capable of supporting a total of 32 lifeboats and 64 ammainarne [9] (at the end were only 16 lifeboats fitted). The keel of the ship had a double bottom cell and the hull was divided into 16 watertight compartments, whose guillotine doors could be closed automatically by the bridge (in the absence of electricity could be closed using the force of gravity). These funds, however, did not cross the entire height of the hull, but stopped at the bridge and (more or less half of the hull, to give more room to room layout). The Titanic could float with two compartments flooded intermediate or with all the first four compartments flooded bow. The collision with the iceberg, however, caused the flooding of the first five compartments bow.
The interior
The Titanic also represented a breakthrough in the magnificence with which they were decorated rooms and cabins. The rooms used by first-class passengers were ordered by the open deck of the bridge E. The main interior were as follows:
The staircase to the first class.
The reading and writing.
The first class grand staircase, a staircase connecting all decks reserved for first class, from the open deck of the bridge E. The staircase was decorated in a Louis XVI and the open deck was surmounted by a dome of glass and wrought iron that illuminated the entire room. The handrail of the landing of the bridge A was decorated by a large lamp bronze depicting a cherub . On the panels of half-bridge landings were located great pictures. The grand staircase flowed to the bridge D in the reception room, with a large chandelier of 21 lights. On the back of the scale were located three elevators, decorated in the same style. An identical environment but light wood paneled bridges connecting the A, B, and C, and was used as a reception room for the restaurants of the bridge B.
The salon, located between the second and third funnel. The environment was designed for passengers who wish to spend time reading, playing cards, drinking tea and listening to the music of ‘ orchestra . The hall was decorated with large panels of oak style Louis XV , whose ornaments were taken from the palace of Versailles. On one side of the hall was located a small fire in marble , on which rested a statue of Artemis . At the center of the room a large chandelier lit environment.
The reading and writing room, designed for the ladies, you could bring that here at any time of day. The hall was decorated in Georgian style , and was placed in two rooms separated by a large arch supported by columns with Corinthian capitals .
The smoking area, located between the third and fourth funnel. The men could reach the hall throughout the day, especially after dinner. It was furnished in Georgian (English eighteenth century), with large panels of dark mahogany and inlaid mother of pearl. To decorate the room there were also large stained glass windows lit artificially. The windows looked out on the promenade deck were decorated with scenes of ports around the world.
The “Café Parisienne”.
The two small rooms of the climbers, two restaurants from which you could access from the promenade deck or a revolving door of the smoking room. The large windows gave the impression of being outdoors.
The restaurant “A la carte”, an exclusive located on B deck, decorated in Georgian style. Here passengers could travel at any time, and order any kind of dish. The manager of this restaurant was the Italian Gaspare Antonio Pietro Luigi Gatti [13] .
The Parisian cafe, where you could enjoy the same menu of the restaurant next door. The environment was designed to resemble a typical Parisian promenade, complete with climbing plants and furniture in wicker . [14]
The reception hall, located on D deck, decorated in the seventeenth century English style, with large windows and white lacquered panels embellished with wrought iron decorations. Armchairs, chairs, wicker sofas and coffee tables were coated burgundy. In one corner of the room was placed a large grand piano. Before dinner the passengers could get a drink and listen to the music of the orchestra.
The large dining room, where the passengers went for dinner. It was 35 meters long and could accommodate about 500 people. It was furnished as a reception hall (Jacobean style). The room was lit with lots of overhead. The lounge chairs were upholstered in green leather and the walls and ceiling were white stucco.
The first-class cabins were more elegant than any other ocean liner. They were decorated in various styles [4] ( Regency , Modern Dutch , Old Dutch , Empire , Louis XV , Louis XVI , Queen Anne , Georgian and Renaissance Italian). For the more affluent passengers were available suites [15] : 2 presidential suites and 2 royal suites. The royal suites (B56-B54) were decorated in the style of Louis XVI, and included a living room, three bedrooms (2 single and 1 double), two bathrooms, two wardrobes and a private promenade deck.
The maiden voyage
The ship departed for its first and only trip on 10 April 1912 from Southampton ( United Kingdom ) to New York , commanded by Captain Edward John Smith . For him, the journey of the new ocean liner was the last command before retirement, and represented the culmination of a long and distinguished career spanning over 40 years [6] . In a celebrated statement he said he could not imagine any kind of accident that could happen to these new transatlantic because the technique of construction had gone far beyond. [12] He took with him a second in command of the most experienced that had been assigned at the last moment and asked the company to transfer to Henry Wilde Titanic at least for the maiden voyage [12] . Wilde, who was on the first ‘ Olympic , took over as William Murdoch, who demoted to the rank of 1 st official on 1 officer Charles Lightoller became the 2 nd and was transferred to 2 °. It seems that Wilde was not enthusiastic about the sudden change and the first port of call in Queenstown wrote to his sister: “This ship still does not please me, gives me a strange feeling.” [12]
The bridge lances.
The Titanic on departure.
Captain Edward John Smith .
Many passengers in the second class, previously booked on other ships were hijacked on the Titanic because of a coal strike. Among them were traveling in the middle of the population: workers, teachers, merchants, etc.. The third class was crowded with immigrants from all over the world and were assisted by the interpreter on board, the German Muller.
In the first class on board some of the men were from that period. Among these was the millionaire John Jacob Astor IV , owner of 150 million dollars [12] and owner of some valuable properties including the famous Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York [16] . There was also an industrialist Benjamin Guggenheim (whose brother was the owner of the art foundation ) [17] , Isidor Straus [4] (owner of the mall Macy , still considered the largest store in the world) and his wife Ida, Washington Roebling (son of the builder of the Brooklyn Bridge ), the U.S. Presidential Adviser Archibald Butt (who was returning to America after a diplomatic mission to the Vatican ), Arthur Ryerson (the American steel magnate), George Widener (son of streetcar magnate U.S.), the journalist William Thomas Stead, the Countess of Rothes, Helen Churchill Candee writer, the writer Jacques Futrelle [4] , the producers of Broadway Henry and Irene Harris, the film actress Dorothy Gibson , the millionairess Margaret “Molly” Brown , Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon and his wife, the Countess Lady Lucille Duff-Gordon, George Elkins Widener and his wife Eleanor, John Borland Thayer, and many others [13] . Instead, they gave up the trip Lord Pirrie and the American ambassador in Paris.
Also traveling in first class managing director of White Star, Joseph Bruce Ismay , who had the idea to build the ship, and chose the name. This was also the chief designer, Thomas Andrews , who wanted to see firsthand the problems of the first trip. Andrews was killed in the wreck, while Ismay sailed on the last lifeboat available, the collapsible Engelhardt boats. [12]
Due to the suction caused by the departure of the Titanic , the little ship New York , moored nearby, broke its moorings and came dangerously close to giant [7] . Failure incident caused the delay of an hour.
After crossing the English Channel the Titanic arrived in the evening to Cherbourg in France , where he stayed with all the lights on, then leaving for Queenstown (now Cobh ) in Ireland [7] , where many Irish emigrants loaded. The last photo of the Titanic sailing to New York was taken just before doppiasse the rock of Fastnet .
The last hour
The only available photograph of the ‘ iceberg that sank the Titanic, captured a few days after the disaster by the sailor Czech Stephan Rehorek. [18]
” The young Thayer was struck by the beauty of sea and sky that night, as, wearing a detail on a warm evening coat, walked for a few minutes up and down the bridge lances, and lonely desert, where the wind whistled between the stays and funnels streams of smoke coming out black. “It was a starry night,” he recalled later. “There was no moon and I had never seen the stars shine more resplendent, seemed to want to break away from the sky. It was one of those nights when you feel happy to be alive ” »
( [12] )
On April 14 , after four days of sailing, around 13:30 the captain gave to Bruce Ismay a message just received from the steam Baltic , which indicated the presence of ice at 400 km on the route of the Titanic . The director of the White Star did not give excessive weight to the thing and thought it sufficient to move the route of the transatlantic Outward Southern Track , fairways agreed liners [19] . The two men also discussed the speed deciding to take it to the maximum possible [9] . In the last 24 hours, in fact, had been well traveled 546 miles and there was a chance to get to New York one day in advance [12] . It was never clear who was responsible for final decision.
However, the possibility of encountering ice was a completely normal and ships of the line they used to keep high speed to ensure the time. This truth was confirmed during the British Inquiry into post-disaster, when several commanders (John Pritchard, William Stewart, Alexander Fairfull, Andrew Braes and many others) were questioned about it. The speed was reduced only on actual sighting, but as long as the visibility was good and the lookouts alerted you could proceed as normal. [12]
At 13:45 a message arrived from the steamer signaling ice Amerika , which inexplicably did not come to the bridge, while in the afternoon another warning, this time from the Mesaba , was not delivered. The marconisti were engaged in sending messages of many of the private passenger, who from the day before had accumulated due to a momentary failure radio equipment (cables of the transformer secondary were burned) [12] .
At about 21:00 the temperature had dropped to one degree above zero and the officer on duty – Lightoller – had warned the shipwright that your water supply would probably be frozen [12] . At about that time, the captain went on the bridge and Lightoller discussed with the unusually calm sea. Before retiring in the cabin, Smith ordered him to call him if anything strange had happened [19] and decrease the speed during fog [12] . The drop in temperature indicated that they were probably closer to a bank of icebergs [9] and Lightoller told the lookouts to watch for icebergs, especially for small growlers [12] .
At 22.00, the first officer Murdoch took over from 1 Lightoller, from whom he received his orders. Half an hour later, Murdoch replied to a message by means of a clamp lamp from the steamer Rappahannock , which crossed the Titanic at 22.30: informing him of being just come from a floe surrounded by icebergs. [12] The same Murdoch ordered lampista to close the hatch on the forecastle, so that light does not obstruct the view of the headliner, [9] but not resolved to reduce the speed of the ship. The experience had shown that under normal conditions a mass of ice was visible due to the waves which rippled at its base. However, with an absolutely flat sea as now, the safety margin was very small [12] . During the investigation, British, Lightoller, indicated that “the ocean was as smooth as the surface of a table or a floor, was something truly exceptional” [12] .
At 23:00, a very important marconigram finally reached the freighter Californian , who stood frozen in the ice a few tens of miles to the north-west of the Titanic : the message was reported the presence of a huge field of icebergs right on the transatlantic route, but Also this message was not delivered on the bridge. Indeed, wireless operator Phillips chided the operator of the Californian for interrupting his work with the telegraph station of Cape Race in Newfoundland .
In general, the result was an attitude of lightness and overconfidence that took all the crew. [20]
Collision
At 23:35, the lookouts Frederick Fleet and Reginald Lee [21] saw an iceberg in front of the ship. The sighting occurred “naked eye” because of the lack of binoculars, and then late. The lack of binoculars – is ascertained at the trial – was due to having to hurry to set sail from Southampton on time, why were not distributed on board already at the start [1] . The reason is also explained by the crew wanted to reshuffle the master, because the first officer Blair 2 (replaced by Lightoller) before transferring issued instructions to remove from the crow’s nest binoculars that he had brought [12] .
After the sighting, Fleet rang the bell three times and telephoned the bridge. Murdoch immediately veered to the left to put the machines ordered “full astern”, but the ship was traveling at a speed of 22.5 knots (speed calculated right after the 4 th official Boxhall) and failed to slow in time needed to avoid ‘ impact, by virtue of ‘ inertial mass which was the subject of the liner.
After the discovery of the wreck, according to the geographical position it was discovered that the actual speed at the time of collision was about 20.5 knots. Moreover, in retrospect it was hypothesized that if Murdoch had maintained the direction, the ship has suffered a violent frontal impact against the iceberg, damaging the first two compartments, and could probably continue sailing to New York . Crawled on the ice sheet and causing bending the straight six different passages under the waterline.
The collision was not significantly felt by the passengers and only those who stood on the bridge noticed the presence of ‘ icebergs , while not realizing the seriousness of the event. Lightoller, who at that moment he was lawfully in bed in his cabin, testified that he felt only “a break in the monotony of the movement.” Following the survivors described the impact as “the rolling of thousands of balls,” as “if someone had rubbed a huge finger against the side of the ship,” or as if “a piece of cloth had been torn.” [9] Very different was the reaction down in the engine room, where the firemen were busy feeding the boilers. One of them gave the following testimony: “Suddenly the starboard side seemed to ruin him. It felt like a burst of gunfire and the water began to flow around and we gurgled between her legs and we rushed with a jump in the next compartment behind shutting the door tight. I did not think, and nobody thought at that moment, that the Titanic could sink ‘ [22] .
Early stages after impact
As the water began to flood the compartments were immediately closed the watertight doors and Captain Smith ordered to sound the ship. According to studies undertaken during the design, the ship would have been able to stay afloat with four flooded compartments in succession, but not to them if they added a fifth (six open slots dall’iceberg interested in fact the first five compartments bow). In addition, the watertight bulkheads did not exceed the bridge “E”, which was approximately half the height of the ship. Because of this, the sinking of the bow would have overflowed the water to other sectors making it virtually useless to the work of electric pumps.
The calculations made by Thomas Andrews revealed that the liner was sunk within a maximum of one hour and a half or two hours or less [9] [12] . He was then given the order to abandon ship according to the rules: Wilde took on the lifeboats, Murdoch called the passengers to the collection, 6 ° Official Moody prepared the list of assignments for each boat, the 4 th was sent to wake the other [9] . Absolutely necessary to avoid panic, as the situation still seemed relatively safe. In fact, the only anomaly was formed by the terrible hiss of steam coming out from the valves of the chimneys, to prevent the outbreak of the boilers. Lightoller told that the steam was such an uproar that a thousand locomotives rumbling through a tunnel would not be able to match him. Even marconisti, whose property was located behind the base of the funnel no. 1, had trouble hearing the radio transmissions. “We do not hear nothing for noise of steam,” was the message received a score of times by the Japanese steamship Ypiranga . Later, the commander was able to decrease it. [12]
The Titanic was equipped with 3,560 individuals but lifebelts of only 16 lifeboats (plus 4 folding) for a total capacity of 1178 seats, enough for the passengers and crew. The loading took place in the order of the captain, pointing to pick up “women and children first”. [23] [24] The crew misunderstood this order preventing the men to climb onto the lifeboats, but in reality the Captain meant that men could go further if he remained free space. [25] The first lifeboat was lowered at 00:40 on the right side with only 28 people on board shortly after it was lowered one with just 12 people, although their ability were of 65 passengers. Wasting three-fifths of seats available, many of the lifeboats were lowered into the sea half-empty.
For their part, passengers tended to consider the matter a joke if someone had a life jacket was mocked, while others exhibited blocks of ice as souvenirs [12] . The orchestra is positioned even in the first class lounge and began to play syncopated music, then moved on the staircase at the entrance of the bridge lances.
The orchestra played during the sinking.
” Everything happened in so formal that it was difficult to realize the situation. Men and women, standing in groups, talking. It was an unreal sight, looked like a drama played for fun. The men, after doing a lady seated on the spear, saying “after her” and made a step back. Many were smoking, others were walking. [26] ”
Another witness reports:
‘ A bit ‘of time after, I do not remember exactly but long after, the order was given to all the boats to regroup and one of the officers said they had not been loaded to maximum. In fact the passengers were not well distributed, for example on my boat there was no one able to row. The officer then said that since it was not loaded correctly, would have drained, transferring two people on one, the other four, three and six in yet another final. During all these movements, particularly distressing in the middle of an ocean black for the darkness of the night, I found myself separated from my mother. [27] “
The first and second class passengers had easy access to the bridge lance through the stairs leading to the bridge, while the third passenger had considerable difficulty finding the path. Of the total number of steerage passengers if it saved only one-third, giving rise to the “legend” – supported by some evidence – that were intentionally left out. [28]
The recorded position of the Titanic at impact was 41 º 46 ‘N 50 º 14′ W. The wreck was found at 41 º 43 ‘N 49 º 56′ W.
The order to pick up women and children in steerage deck spears apparently arrived at 00.30, when a waiter led small groups of people through the maze of passages and wide corridor known as “Scotland Road” on the bridge and [12] .
Meanwhile, shortly after midnight, the official Boxhall 4 ° past the lights of a ship about 10 miles away (it was the Californian ) and was authorized by Smith to shoot the eight flares, one every five minutes, to no avail . [12] [9] . More or less at the same time, the captain went in person to the radio room to deliver a request for help to the two marconisti [12] , which, after using the CQD , starting at 0:45 started sending the ‘ SOS , the new distress signal that was officially replaced by 1908 the old CQD . The marconisti rarely made use of the new signal, which began to be used universally after Harold Bride He used to board the Titanic . At that time, moreover, not all ships had a radio service. Several ships responded, including the ‘ Olympic [29] , but they were all too far away to intervene in time.
The nearest ship was the Carpathia , 58 miles away, the radio operator Cottam was left speechless when he received a distress message from the famous ocean liner, and the maiden voyage travel awoke Captain Arthur Rostron to communicate the news [12] . Immediately orders were given to reverse course and give full steam, but the Carpathia would arrive on site in no less than four hours. In the last message received by the Carpathia , at 1:45, the radio operator sent: “Come as soon as possible, man. Our engine room is filling up the boilers. ” [30]
An hour after the impact with the iceberg, the Titanic had on board at least 25 million liters of water [31] and the situation began to take on the dramatic aspects, and the forward deck was flooded and all the boats except two were already removed. On board were still more than 1,500 people. Some passengers tried to storm the last spears and 5 ° Official Lowe was forced to fire some shots into the air to ward off the crowd [9] . The Purser fired two shots into the air, while Murdoch sventava an assault on the boat n. 15 [12] .
Archibald Gracie later recalled that the orchestra board continued to play until at least about 1 .40 [32] . He reported also that some of his acquaintances (Messrs. Millet, Moore, Butt and Ryerson), after realizing that there were no more boats, began to play cards indifferent to what happened [33] . Miss Katherine Gold (a waitress who was on board one of the spears) from a distance saw many men sitting on the deck to the sound of ragtime . He heard a waltz but could not remember what [34] .
The last piece played by the orchestra was a religious hymn, perhaps Fall or more likely Nearer, My God, to Thee (Nearer to Thee, my God). Particularly valuable is the recent testimony of Eva Hart, who at the time of the disaster was 7 years:
” There’s no doubt about what they played. When we were in the water began to play one of three versions of Nearer, My God, to Thee . As there were three different versions and the one that performed the more I listened to church with my grandmother. In America, that version was not there and that’s why the Americans argue that the reason was not performed. [35] ”
All the musicians died in the sinking.
Final stages of the sinking
According to the testimonies of survivors, and through the reconstructions made by the wreck, it was determined that 1.30 towards the bow of the ship was completely submerged, with the stern out of water. Before withdrawing the bridge, it seems that the captain has asked passengers to be gentlemen (“Be English!” You Brits) and sends out the order, then “Save yourselves, if you can!” (Every man for himself), releasing the ‘crew from his work.
Thomas Andrews, the builder, had spent the last hour trying to reassure passengers and waiters urging them to wear life jackets (“Downstairs is in pieces but will not sink if they hold the aft bulkhead”) [36] . He was finally seen by the waiter John Stewart, standing in the smoking lounge, with his gaze fixed on a framework: The port of Plymouth , the painter Norman Wilkinson. [37] The waiter (who managed to save himself) asked him if he wanted Do not even try, but Andrews’ remained there as stupid ” [12] .
Even Benjamin Guggenheim is a curious testimony to the effect that he refused a life jacket wearing an evening dress with his secretary. “We got the best clothes and sink like gentlemen.” [38] [12] [9] The phrase passed into history but it is not clear to whom it was addressed.
The restaurant manager, M. Gatti, stood aside in cape and top hat, while the millionaire JJ Astor – who had been denied a place in the lifeboat Lightoller by n. 4 next to his wife [9] – remained on the bridge lances unto death. He said he put on his hat to a boy a girl saying “Here, you can go now” [12] .
Shortly after 2:00, Lightoller tried to lower the boat into the sea B foldable climbing on the roof of the officers’ quarters, but could not. The leaflet was taken away by the undertow A floating upside down. The D was lowered into the sea with 44 people on board (the capacity is about 47) after which Lightoller and his sailors defended him from the assault of passengers holding hands forming a human chain [9] . These spears were the last boats remained available. Colonel Gracie reported that at that moment an immense crowd coming from the lower floors have emerged covering the whole bridge lance: they were the steerage passengers remained until then deck [9] . About one hundred people gathered around two priests and began to pray the Rosary [39] . With them came also all the drivers, who had worked at the pumps as much as possible by delaying the sinking and ensuring the electric light until almost the end. The drivers all died without exception [40] .
The sinking in a vintage painting by Willy Stower.
At about 2:10 the stern had risen to the point where an angle of 30 º with the surface of the sea, silhouetted against the starry sky. The terrifying force generated by the emergence of the hull caused the crushing of the keel and the expansion of the superstructure, the hull, which led almost to the breaking point [41] . According to calculations made by scientists of the expedition of 1997 [42] , the Titanic acted at that moment a pressure of three tons per square centimeter. The chimney fell off the bow, while the water broke the windows of the dome and flooded the staircase pouring into the ship.
The eyewitness Jack Thayer, from aboard a boat, he testified:
” The bridge was slightly turned toward us. We saw piles of almost 1500 passengers remained on board that affastellavano like swarms of bees, but only to fall in groups, in pairs, alone, while about 80 meters Hull rising to the surface forming an angle of about 70 ° . Then the ship, and with it the same time seemed to stop. Finally, gradually, the bridge turned, as if to hide from view the spectacle. ”
( Testimony of Jack Thayer [9] )
At 2:15 the lights went out and the ship were heard sounds of dark “tears and fractures” [43] , as if the boilers and the machines were disconnected from their seats falling headlong. The stern seemed to suddenly drop and rotate, clear sign that the hull was broken into two sections. The contradictory testimony of the survivors suggest that the rupture did not occur out of the water surface, and what you saw was definitely less than the sudden tilting of the stern [44] .
Jack Thayer reported again:
” Suddenly, the whole structure of the Titanic seemed to break in two, quite clearly on the front part and the other stood tilted toward the sky. [45] ”
Lawrence Beesley added:
” Before the bridge was completely submerged, the Titanic soared vertically along its length and, maybe for 5 minutes, we saw the ship at least 150 feet above the sea level rise, against the sky and then falling sideways vanished subt ‘water. [46] ”
The water penetrated inside and sped up the sinking of the bow section, allowing the tail to rise again assuming an almost vertical position (90 degrees) [47] .
Colonel Gracie, who had been sucked into a vortex of water just before the end [48] , wrote in his book The Truth about the Titanic :
” In the area of which I speak, as far as I could see, ascended into heaven cries most atrocious ever heard by mortal man, except by those who survived this terrible tragedy. The moans and groans of the wounded, the screams of those who were in panic and the fearful gasp of those who drowned, none of us forget it again until the day of his death. ”
( [12] )
At 2:20 the Titanic finally sank into the ocean. The bow section, still intact in the structure, first sank and began the descent while the aft section began to take on water and was still emerged. The forward section, therefore, glided to 3800 meters losing the remaining two chimneys when the water pressure was able to overcome the sealing of the welds (ie towards the depth of 300 meters); the tip is stuck in the mud for 18 meters, by plowing, while the rear part of the bow collapsed by crumpling the plates of both flanks. The recoil due to the impact uprooted the tree on the silty bottom of the bow making it break down on the control room.
The stern section was completely devastated. It runs vertically spinning on itself and the sudden pressure of the water and air did literally “explode”. The hull of the hull, very heavy because of the drive alternatives (which had remained in their place), crashed on the bottom with such violence that the bridges collapsed on each other. In the following hours, the debris reached the bottom and positioned themselves around the wreck.
The rescue operation
Survivors on board a raft removable, viewed from the edge of the Carpathia .
To learn more, see the entry list of passengers aboard the RMS Titanic .
Only one lifeboat, no. 14 commanded the 5 th official Lowe, turned back by saving 6 people, one of which – Mr. Hoyt – died an hour later. The temperature was about 0 degrees and those who were at sea they could withstand up to 10 minutes before assiderarsi. In fact, most of the survivors died just for freezing and not by drowning, since nearly all were wearing life jackets . No one was the victim of sharks (which are also at those latitudes) and none was a victim of suction to the fund that was created at the time of the sinking.
Around 8 am, arrived on site on the Carpathia , which rescued the shipwrecked survivors on lifeboats. On board was later held a religious ceremony on Missing and at 8:50 the ship departed for New York , where she arrived on April 18 with 706 survivors [13] .
Once the number of victims, the White Star Line sent the ship MacKay-Bennett to retrieve the remains. 338 bodies were found, many of whom were brought to Halifax in Nova Scotia , where those unclaimed were buried in local cemetery. The White Star Line undertook to maintain the decorum of these graves until 1927 , when it merged with Cunard, which still carries out this service.
At an estimated total of 2228 people aboard, only 705 survived [4] and about 1523 (68%) died. In fact, the precise number is uncertain, since the exact list of the passengers and crew was lost. The data cited are those given official U.S. investigation [49] .
The case of the Californian
An event that for many years remained shrouded in mystery was the presence of a ship on the horizon, whose lights were seen by many witnesses in the distance. The officers Boxhall and Rowe attempted to send signals with the first lighthouse, then with white signal rockets, but obtained no response. It was the Californian , who at that time stood at cars stopped for fear of ice [50] .
Particularly striking was the description that the 2 ° Official Stone of Californian gave the incident, when he stated that he saw a white rocket rising from the lights of a steamer. Even one of the firemen had the same vision:
” I went up on deck at 23:56 and saw the lights of a big steamer. It was midnight and I went to my cabin. Unable to sleep after half an hour I got up thinking of smoking a cigarette and went back on deck. I was there for ten minutes when a dozen miles away I saw a white rocket. I thought it was a shooting star. After six or eight minutes I saw a second rocket in the same place and I said to myself: ‘must be a ship in distress’. [51] ”
Captain Stanley Lord was informed of the firing of rockets, but he just sort the messages by morse lamp, unable to establish any contact. His behavior was harshly criticized during investigations relating to the wreck, but he got away only with harsh moral convictions [12] [9] [50] .
Insufficient lifeboats
The law issued in 1894 required it to install a minimum of sixteen lifeboats on vessels in excess of 10,000 tons , at the time the largest ship in the world ( Lucania ) weighed 13,000 tons. However, over time, the law was never adequate in proportion to the increase in tonnage and no one bothered to correct the difference. The number of lifeboats aboard the Titanic was so perfectly in spite of the ship weighed 46,000 tons. The perception of the error was now clearly perceived in the ship, so much so that one of the designers of the White Star – Alexander Carlisle [52] – did install on the Titanic, the new crane type “Welin,” which could support a total of 32 ammainarne lifeboats and 64 (the arms of the cranes were rotating) [9] . However, additional lances were never installed and the White Star was content to add only four detachable, smaller, type “Engelhardt”. It seems that the final decisions have been the designer William Pirrie and Bruce Ismay, according to which the bridge lance with 16 lifeboats would have looked more dignified [53] . In the end, Carlisle accepted the situation by saying: ” Unless the Board of Trade and governments do not make it necessary to install a sufficient number of lifeboats, no manufacturer can afford so much useless weight ” [54] .
Strong criticism came from Senator William Alden Smith, prosecutor in the investigation of 1912 , he wrote:
” The lifeboats of the Titanic were only partially filled, and all were free of bushes, with only three lamps. The crew was so inept that, in the absence of a prompt recovery, would have destroyed against the fragments of ice [in the sea]. A witness swears that he heard two or three flight attendant who was the first time I took an oar in his hand and did not know what they were used in the rowlocks. The lifeboats were filled with so much indifference, and so lower speeds, from 500 people needlessly sacrificed in the name of the ordinate regulation of the load, according to every test is not contradictory. 1324 people were on board. There were 1176 seats in the boats, but they contained only 704 people, 12 of which were fished from the sea, the weather is good and perfectly calm water. Yet some nice person even said that the best discipline prevailed. If this is discipline, what would be the disorder? [55] ”
The rudder and “the ability to turn”
The Titanic compared to the Queen Mary 2 and to other types of means of transport.
Despite the size of the rudder were not inferior to those prescribed by the rules, for a ship of that size, however, were not optimal. According to researchers at the Titanic Historical Society , “the long, narrow helm of Titanic had a copy of a ship of the eighteenth century . Compared to the helm of the Mauretania and the Lusitania , the helm of the Titanic was smaller. Apparently no improvement project was undertaken to give a 270 meter long ship can turn quickly and avoid a collision with an iceberg. This was his Achilles heel ” [56] .
Another element of the fatal Titanic was the propulsion system in triple helix (against four in the Mauretania and Lusitania ), in which the two steam engines alternative – in the direction invertible – put in operation the two propellers side, while the propeller Central was driven by a steam turbine is not invertible. Therefore, when the officer Murdoch ordered to reverse the motor to try to avoid the iceberg, he inadvertently also limited the ability to steer the ship. In fact, when operating at full astern the steam turbine (which was not reversible) just stopped, and because the propeller was attached to it in front of the helm, the effectiveness of the latter was very small.
The type of steel and bolts
The iceberg deformed plates allowing the entry of water between the nails.
For 85 years the public has always believed that the iceberg had practiced a long gash in the side. According to calculations, it should be no less than 90 meters long, as incorrectly described in all the books and the entire filmography inherent in the disaster. However, studies carried out from the wreck of the expedition of 1997 made it possible to determine the dynamics of the sinking. Since the damaged part is buried, the scientists used sonar to examine it. What was discovered was that the side plates are bent but not “cracked”, creating cracks at their riveted joints and letting the water through several small holes 6 [2] .
Some samples were also fished out of the hull. The steel was recovered shows a high content of phosphorus and sulfur (respectively four times and two times higher than modern steels). The ratio of manganese / sulfur was 6,8:1 (currently it is more than 200 to 1). The phosphorus in high amounts makes the steel prone to fractures, while the sulfur creates grains of iron sulphide that facilitate propagation of the fractures themselves. The reduced manganese content makes the steel less ductile. All this, combined with the freezing temperatures of the Atlantic, made the hull fragile in extreme conditions and contributed decisively to the rapid sinking [57] [58] [59] .
However, the scientists of the expedition of 1997 have also said that steel impurity found in the Titanic was typical of production in vogue at the beginning of the twentieth century, and probably could not do better. At that time the steel was produced in small batches from each 70 tons [60] . This calls into question the recent hypothesis that the White Star Line wanted to save on construction costs by adopting deliberate bad material. The same scientists have calculated that just before the break, the ship’s hull suffered a pressure of 3 tons per square centimeter [61] because of the extraordinary inclination.
Robert Ballard , the marine geologist who found the wreck in 1985, in his book The discovery of the Titanic HPLeighly cites Professor University of Missouri, according to which a certain type of steel production in the early twentieth century could become more fragile losing elasticity below a certain temperature. On the other hand, according to Ballard, the mystery remains why was sunk a ship “built with advanced safety criteria, not only by the standards of the time but for ours.” Also according to Ballard, the naval architect KG Barnaby writes in his book Some naval disasters and their causes that modern construction standards do not make ships safer than the Titanic . For example, the damage suffered by ‘ Andrea Doria in 1956 did not constitute a serious problem for the Titanic . The tragedy was caused by high-speed collision and not by serious structural deficiencies. Do not forget – writes Ballard – who were well affected five watertight compartments, and the probability of a collision of this type are extremely low. Certainly, before 1912 had never had news of a ship that had suffered such damage [9] .
Subsequent studies in 1998 and 2006 , however, have advanced a new theory about the presence of defective bolts on the side of the Titanic , which would favor the opening of holes in the hull [57] [62] .
Subsequent events and consequences
The front page of The Age of 17 April 1912 , dedicated to the shipwreck
The news of the disaster on the New York Herald
Monument to victims of the Titanic, in Washington DC
The morning after the disaster, the vice president of White Star gave the press the news of the accident, declaring that the Titanic ran no danger of sinking. Only at 19.00 communicated the truth of the tragedy, but not specifying the number of victims [63] . Even before the ship with the survivors giungesse in port, began an investigation to find out what had happened and likely to prevent a second tragedy.
The U.S. Senate opened an investigation on April 19 , the day after the arrival of the Carpathia in New York . Senator William Alden Smith, chairman of the committee, wanted to have the testimonies of passengers and crew “a fresh mind”, before the weather did lose track of details. He also wanted to interrogate British nationals while they were still on American soil. The American inquiry lasted until May 25 .
Lord Mersey was appointed to chair the investigation of the British Board of Trade in England , which took place between May 2 and July 3 .
Both surveys collected the testimonies of passengers and crews of both the Titanic that the Californian , as well as various experts. As a result of the failure of the radio on the Californian during the night, 29 nations ratified in 1912 the Radio Act which regulated the use of radio communications.
The disaster led to the meeting of the First International Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea , in London , on 12 November 1913 . On 20 January 1915 the conference signed a treaty that established the international financing of ‘ International Ice Patrol , an agency of the U.S. Coast Guard that still controls and indicates the presence of icebergs dangerous to navigation in the North Atlantic.
It also decided that the lifeboats should be sufficient for all persons on board, who were made the appropriate training exercises for emergencies, that radio communications were to be operational 24 hours of 24 and should have an emergency generator with autonomy of a day. It was agreed that the firing of a signal flare red from a ship should be interpreted as a distress call.
The discovery
The wreck
The idea of finding the wreck of the Titanic was born shortly after the sinking. The bathymetric surveys as early as 1912 , showed a depth of 3,800 m in the oceanic area of the wreck, too big for the technology era.
No attempt was made until 1 September 1985 , when a joint French-American expedition led by Jean-Louis Michel and Robert Ballard of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution , spotted and photographed the entire wreck, 22 km away from the place where it was supposed is found [64] .
It lies about 486 miles from the island of Newfoundland , at a depth of 3,787 m, on a muddy bottom, at the foot of the North American continental slope, so right on the abyssal plain. The exact coordinates are 41 ° 43’55 “N 49 ° 56’45 “W .
The most interesting discovery was that the ship had split into two sections, with section of the aft located 600 meters away from the bow and pointed in the opposite direction. There was conflicting testimony on whether the ship had broken and the subsequent investigation concluded that the ship sank intact [65] . For example, the 2 nd officer Lightoller and Colonel Gracie always claimed that the boat sank intact [66] , and so did Lawrence Beesley in his book The Loss of the Titanic . According to the drawings in the book by Ballard [9] , it is likely that the break has occurred just below the water level, thereby perceive (not see) the failure occurred. What the witnesses saw was in fact the sudden descent of the rear deck on the surface and then rise vertically [9] .
It was agreed that the bow sank with a pronounced angle of descent, plowing the sea floor about 2 hours after departure from the stern and sotterrandosi for about 18 meters. The stern, however, is completely destroyed due to air contained at the time of the sinking, which had the effect of invalidating the hull and decks. Also contributed to the devastation of the high speed impact with the seabed, as the stern was weighed down by bloated alternatives to driving are still bolted to its original position.
With regard to the funnels, of them was not found almost no trace. The n. 1 fell off when the ship was still on the surface, while others are believed to have separated after 300 m of depth, because of water pressure. All, however, have moved several kilometers from the site of the sinking as a result of marine currents.
Around the wreck is a large amount of scrap metal, furniture, dishes and personal items scattered within about a square mile. Human bodies and perishable materials such as wood were consumed in a short time by marine organisms.
In the first years after the discovery became more and more strongly the idea of being able to re-float the sections of the hull [67] , a hypothesis advanced by the same Ballard, who however did not see the real need [68] .
In 1987 they began to be recovered valuables including a leather bag full of jewelry, safes and some other artifacts from the wreck, which were later exhibited in several exhibitions [69] [70] , and open on live television worldwide [71] .
Were recovered approximately 5000 artifacts, some of which were brought to France, where an association of craftsmen each specializing in a different field will patiently restored. For example, some were refurbished trombini (ie sirens steam funnels), the wooden base of a bush, a statuette of ceramic, metal grid of a bench, a suitcase containing clothing for men, even as a paper material musical scores, letters, bank drafts, etc.. Some restorers are opposed, however, the complete restoration of the findings, since they are more meaningful if they keep track of the trauma they have suffered [72] .
In August 1996 there was an attempt recovery of the hull in the presence of two cruise ships, but the recovery failed due to mechanical failure [73] solved a few days later, when it was returned to the surface a portion of the bridge including two first-class cabins for a total of 10 tons. The operation took place thanks to the use of balloons filled with diesel fuel , which is a liquid lighter than water. [74]
Several scientists, including Robert Ballard, believe that the tourist visits to the wreck are accelerating the degradation process [75] . Marine organisms are gradually consuming the iron of the Titanic sinking ever since, but because of the damage added by visitors to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimates that U.S. “the hull and structure of the ship on the ocean floor could collapse within the next 50 years ” [76] (within 80-100 years according to other estimates) [77] . Ballard’s book Return to Titanic , published by National Geographic Society , includes photographs showing the deterioration of the upper deck caused by the rest of the submersibles.
The scientists of the expedition of 1997 were placed on the underwater part of the corroded wreck to the bow, a kind of bait with photographic negatives. After a few days they realized that the gelatin film was affected by bacteria that feed on iron, estimating that one hundred years about 20% of the bow has already been consumed. According to scholars, the Titanic is literally “eaten” by bacteria, and over the centuries will turn into dust and iron ore [78] .
Property and litigation
On June 7, 1994 RMS Titanic Inc. was awarded the property rights to the wreck and recovery [79] by the American District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia ( U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia ).
RMS Titanic Inc., a subsidiary of Premier Exhibitions Inc., and its predecessors have conducted seven expeditions to the wreck between 1987 and 2004 and have saved approximately 5,500 items. The largest artifact, recovered in 1998, was a section of the hull 17 tons [80] . Many of these artifacts are part of traveling exhibitions, the RMS Titanic Inc. exhibited in museums around the world [81] .
In 1987 during 32 dives, a joint French-American expedition that included the predecessor of the company RMS Titanic Inc., recovered approximately 1,800 artifacts, which were brought to France for their restoration and conservation. In 1993 a French administrator of the Bureau of Maritime Affairs of the Ministry of Equipment, Transport and Tourism awarded RMS Titanic Inc., the predecessor of the title to the artifacts recovered in 1987.
In a motion of February 12, 2004, RMS Titanic Inc. requested that the District Court for the assegnasse “title to all artifacts (including portions of the hull) subject of this action, based on things found on maritime legislation” or, alternatively, a reward for its recovery in the amount of $ 225 million. RMS Titanic Inc. excluded from the motion requesting a compensation for the artifacts of 1987, however, demanded that the District Court declared that, based upon administrative French “artifacts recovered during the expedition of 1987 were independently owned by RMST.”
Following a hearing, the District Court refused on 2 July 2004 recognize the 1993 decision of the administrator and the French rejected the request of RMS Titanic Inc. of the assignment of title to the artifacts recovered in 1993 and apply the standard shipping on finding lost things.
RMS Titanic Inc. appealed to the Court of Appeals of the United States of America. In its decision of January 31, 2006 [82] , the court recognized “explicitly that it is appropriate to apply the law of the sea rescue shipwrecks like the Titanic” and denied the application of maritime legislation on finding lost things. The court also decided, however, that the District Court had no jurisdiction over the “1987 artifacts” and therefore annulled the decision of this court’s July 2, 2004. In other words, according to this decision, RMS Titanic Inc. has assigned title to the artifacts in the French decision (previously estimated at $ 16.5 million) and continues to be in possession of the wreck of the Titanic. The Court of Appeal has referred to the District Court to determine the salvage reward (225 million dollars requested by RMS Titanic Inc.) [83] .
The Titanic in the collective
It ‘a broad consensus that this tragedy was not only a major maritime accident.
” The sinking of the Titanic represented the end of an era, the shattered dream of the Belle Epoque . As with the fall of the Babylonian Empire, the sinking of the Titanic has been the proud symbol of the crumbling of empires, with a similar blend of rich, middle class and poor are all bound together abyss. It was the end of a legend that the technology married to wealth, materialism, the romance, the fantasy illusion. [84] ”
” In the night between 14 and 15 April 1912 were – perhaps for the last time – strictly applied the rules of chivalry a little ‘that was romantic, in a superficial way, the culmination of Western civilization. Were saved for the first women and children while men (among them famous billionaires) resigned themselves to die with dignity as gentlemen . Went down the myth of the indestructibility of a product of modern technology. A world that seemed safe and inviolable, especially for the rich, along with the liner sank. [85] ”
” The tragedy that involved the famous ship is not only regarded as an unfortunate and fatal accident. It has influenced so much stronger in the consciousness of the entire globe. Since the 30s of the nineteenth century had spread ideas of great trust in science and believed that technology could solve the problems of human life. Moreover, this was part of a geo-political framework of broad stability: it was the Belle Epoque . One can well understand how in such a context, the sinking of an unsinkable ship could be considered to hit the general consciousness. The speech becomes clearer when one considers that only two years after Europe will be involved in the Great War that will wipe out any hope of causing the end most of the ruling classes. [86] ”
” The Titanic did not represent the end of an era but a moment to pause and reflect on the fact that maybe we are not as powerful as we believe, with the hope that there is no longer a “gray lady”, an “elegant lady” who has such a tragic end. [87]
Why do Filipino applauded Corazon Aquino so much?
Posted by Tanner Mills on May 16, 2012
I have come to stumble the Philippine Directory where her face was painted. She was smiling as she was holding a nest with a flying bird. I know she had come to liberate us from the dictatorship but have you forgotten, during her term, The Philippine had suffered from seven coup plus the MV Doña Paz
During her funeral, I heard people wanting her to become a saint!!!!. I know Filipino have sense of Utang na loob but I think we have paid them more enough. I do not hate her. I believe she was a great woman, a saint of democracy and she is someone all woman should be but I think extolling her is already too much
Corazon Aquino was a product of Western and local media hype. And the Filipinos (thankfully not all) were hoodwinked into believing that she and her ilk can bring the Philippines to a magical or miraculous economic, political and spiritual recovery. Her term of office has been dubbed as the do-nothing presidency, while her cohorts shamelessly "sequestered" all assets of assumed Marcos cronies. The movement to make her a saint was actually started soon after the so-called 1986 Peoples Power EDSA Revolution, when Cardinal Sin called her a Saint from Heaven, Heaven Sent etc. At least thats how it looked to certain vested interest groups. But not to the Filipinos if you really take a close look at it. She illegally wrested power from a duly elected President, and yet has the gall to call it a victory for the Filipinos.Really, now. The real losers in the EDSA revolt was the Filipino people. all the gains of the last 20 years of the "Dictatorship" were virtually wiped out, while all the infrastructures projected for the future were shelved if not flatly cancelled. for what?
One columnist commented that Mrs. Aquino was able to bring the Philippines back to twenty years ago, and bring back the conditions that compelled Marcos to declare Martial Law. For that you want to make her a saint?
The person who promised to be magnanimous in victory turned out to be just the exact opposite.
and all the media hype turned out to be just what it was. Media hype.
How did the Halifax Explosion changed Canada?
Posted by Tanner Mills on May 16, 2012
How did you the explosion in Halifax changed Canada? I mean, how did it change Canada for ever?
the horror of a ship loaded with explosives in the "bowl like" confinement of halifax harbor, detonating and momentarily emptying the harbor of water, destruction of all buildings and structures, and massive loss of life, by the blast wave and resulting tsunami of water rushing over the town. brought the terror of war home to canadians. no longer would any marine transport of flammables or explosives, or hazardous materials, in powder, solid, liquid, or gaseous form be allowed to be loaded or off loaded at any facility near a populated area. this rule also began being applied to highway transport, rail transport and routes in or near populated areas.it also modified the handling,safety devices, inspections, methods and means of transport of these material, labeling, notices, licensing, fees, and escort precautions, and schedules, mandated by new laws and regulations across the board, and subject to prior crown and provincial approval. it also showed the need for better ways to handle accidents, responding to emergency situations reporting, records requirements, training, policing,investigations, enforcement and penalties levied by the courts